Body+Image

toc Culture plays an important part in the way humans see themselves and others. According to Hays (2008), culture is related to traditions of thought and/or behavior that is defined through society and shared through generations.
 * Introduction **

Body image is one such societal structure that plays a large role in Western culture. According to the National Association for Eating Disorders, body image can be defined as how one sees themselves when they look in a mirror or how they perceive themselves in their mind. It can encompass a variety of aspects that include what one believes about their appearance, how one feels about their body (including height, weight, shape, etc.), and how one feels in their body, not just how one feels about their body.

There can be both negative and positive body image which are characterized by a few things, respectively. Negative body image could be a distorted perception of one’s shape, one feels ashamed/self-conscious/anxious regarding their body, one feels uncomfortable or awkward in their body, or that one’s body is a sign of personal failure as only other people’s bodies are attractive ( nationaleatingdisorders.org.)

Cross-culturally, body image is a complex issue. The idea of body image is almost solely a Western term and while other cultures’ body image and self-esteem has been studied, much of this research is done from a Western lens. Even within Western culture, there are a variety of subcultures that do not meet or value Western ideals of beauty.

Body Image in other cultures
Body image, like anything else takes a different shape and understanding cross culturally. Not only has body image been researched from an exclusively White-Western lens, body image research often misses the importance of a person's sexuality, race, and nationality. We found it necessary to bring cultures, subcultures, gender, sexuality, and nationalities to the forefront of a dialogue that often leaves them out. The body image cross-cultural perspectives that we cover are: Japanese Women, Queer United States Females, Gay Men in the United States, Fat Acceptance Movement, Indian Females, African-American women, Brazilian women and American men.

Fat Acceptance Movement
The Fat Acceptance Movement in the United States is a part of subculture geared towards equality for those of size. When looking at the movement it is important to understand its roots in fighting discrimination and self-esteem, which has resulted from standards of beauty in the US. Fat Acceptance, while a popular movement today, actually began in the late 1960's and has been gaining momentum ever since.

Gay Men in the United States
Standards of beauty or attractiveness are present in all cultures and subcultures. The gay community is no exception. While muscles and athleticism are commonly known for being considered attractive in the gay community, there is much more to be explored. Recent studies show that while muscular body types are considered attractive, there is a broader scope of what is considered attractive with the formation of subcultures within the gay community.

Japanese Women
There is no word for body image in Japan and this could be for a number of reasons; culturally Japanese people tend to be more humble and do not necessarily talk about themselves and their bodies in the way that Western culture does. There is a body ideal for Japanese women including hair, weight, skin tone, and even fashion plays a part!

United States Queer Females
A word that was once viewed as a derogatory insult has been reclaimed to empower a subculture of the United States through body, gender, and sexuality acceptance. Queerness is not just another word to describe a sexuality it is another way to express gender and style of dress. Under the queer umbrella, females have found ways to use their bodies as a political message. Subcultures like, femme and butch, have put a face to the queer community and have provided community to those who identify.

Females of India
[|India] has the second largest population in the world. India's global presence has seeped into cultures throughout the Western hemisphere. India's colonization in the 18th century by the United Kingdom and the revolutionary voyage to independence led by Mahatma Gandhi's non-violent protest has been recognized all over the world. An aspect of India's culture that has not been researched or followed closely is the body image of females. Skin lightening, beauty pageants, and long hair are aspects of this South Asian country that are of high importance.

Asian American Females
Asian Americans make up 4% of the United States population. Research on body image is lacking for this demographic or it is compared to a Euro-Americans experience. Asian American females have high reports of eating disorders and negative body image. There is an immense desire to assimilate to the White American image of beauty. Rhinoplasty and eyelid surgery is a common plastic surgery procedure amongst Asian American females.

Research in the area of African-American women and body image tends to indicate that black American women have a more positive perception of their bodies in comparison to white American women. The majority of this type of research analyzes black body image in comparison to and in context with white body image. This is not an accurate depiction of black body image since African-American women do suffer from body image issues, but more often in comparison to one another rather than the dominant population.
 * African American Women**

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">Brazil is often characterized as an oasis of beautiful, sprawling, white sandy beaches filled with exotic, bronzed, perfect bodies. This characterization depicts a culture that places high value on beauty and aesthetics, and as such, body image serves as a driving force behind Brazil’s seemingly perfect-bodied population. Brazil, a country whose population results from racial mixing between European, Native American and African people, celebrates beauty and its “pretty people” who are products of this mixing.
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">Brazilian Women **

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">A brief browsing through popular U.S. men’s magazines such as Men’s Fitness, Men’s Health, GQ and Complex can provide an outsider with a fairly blatant view of the body ideal for men in the U.S. Most magazines feature tall, strong, muscular and masculine men all outfitted with the coveted “V” that signals zero body fat and ultimate sexiness. Over the years, this body ideal for men in the states has become increasingly more muscular. As such, this can certainly open the door for body image issues among men.
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">American Men **

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Discussion
Research about the concept of body image remains problematic as it fails to address cross-cultural perspectives. A large portion of research on this topic is taken from an Euro-American perspective with the use of mostly white college-aged participants. Poran (2006) commented that the majority of research on body image is based on white ideals, constructs and measurements. Even minority groups' body image is framed in comparison to the Euro-American perspective. As such, diversity in both ethnic groups and body types are scarce in research. A prime example of this is the salient research with African-American women, who are often believed to have positive body image because they do not adopt the white thin-body ideal. However, research concerning this population rarely compares black women with one another, which would offer a different perspective. Capodilupo and Suah (2014) assert that the black body ideal places emphasis on shapeliness and curves, an opposite ideal from that of white women. This type of inaccurate research can also be found in other cultures such as the queer population, Asian women and the majority of non-white male populations. As such, body image research can be cunningly deceptive in its approach as it does not accurately address the specific cultural beliefs, body types and values of non-Euro-American cultures. Perhaps, more appropriately comparative research is in order. Researchers and practitioners would greatly benefit from redirecting research to intracultural comparisons, where each culture is compared to and studied on its own without the Euro-American perspective. Doing so would help to address the specific needs of non-white cultural groups.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">References
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Capodilupo, C. M., & Suah, K. (2014). Gender and race matter: The importance of <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">considering intersections in black women's body image. Journal Of Counseling Psychology, 61(1), 37-49. doi:10.1037/a0034597

Hays, P.A. (2008). //Addressing cultural complexities in practice: Assessment, diagnosis and// //therapy// (2nd ed.). Washington D.C.: American Psychological Association.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Poran, M. A. (2006). The politics of protection: Body image, social pressures, and the <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">misrepresentation of young black women. Sex Roles, 55(11-12), 739-755. doi:10.1007/s11199-006-9129-5

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