Gender+and+Sexual+Expression+in+the+Carnivalesque

= **Introduction** = toc

Carnival and Carnivalesque Praxis: “Farewell to the Flesh”
While the etymology of the word is contested, “carnival” is apparently derived from the Italian, carne levare meaning the removal of meat (Crichlow and Armstrong, 2009). Carnival was originally a Roman Catholic festival, lasting for three to five days, just prior to the 40 days of Lent which precede Easter. Lent was a time of penance and discipline, and in contrast, the preceding days were marked by a liberation from the usual social and moral constraints. According to Crichlow and Armstrong (2009), “For a day the fool or the fattest glutton in the town became ‘king’, and, to a lesser extent, or at least by implication, the ‘king’ (i.e., the local baron or the mayor or other leading burgher) became a ‘fool’ (p. 400).” Crichlow and Armstrong (2009) further states that usually, instead of leading to actual liberation, carnival was politically useful to the powerful as a harmless escape valve for oppressed people. Carnivals in modern Europe though, seems to have generally lost both its ritual and political edges and evolved into placid community celebrations and commodification. It has been a celebration that was constantly adjusting, at many levels in reaction to changing power relations. (Crichlow and Armstrong, 2009).

The term carnivalesque is used in the English translations of works written by the Russian critic Mikhail Bakhtin. It refers to a literary mode that subverts and liberates the assumptions of the dominant style or atmosphere through humor and chaos (Wikipedia, 2014). Some theorists (Eagleton 1981 as cited in Averill 1994) acknowledge carnival as a site of popular pleasures that challenge taboos, hierarchies,and social conventions. Averill (1994) also states that Bahktin’s medieval carnival-with its grotesque humor, uncrownings, mockery, images of change and renewal, bawdy sexuality, laughter, and suspension of hierarchies-squarely opposed the official culture of church and state, celebrating the unity and fearlessness of the people and affirming their "immortal,indestructible character” (p. 218).

**The Carnivalesque, Gender and Sexuality**
In keeping with the theme of subversions and liberation of a dominant style or theme, Carnival offers an ideal space for the contestation of bias, binaries, and traditions, especially those imposed by authorities unto the poor, oppressed or dispossessed. Averill (1994) explains that Carnival also foregrounds bodily pleasures and further states that the body (and its pleasure) occupies a crucial place in Foucault's theories of modern regimes of discipline and power/ knowledge. Foucault views bodies as the sites upon which power is enacted (Foucault 1978 as cited in Averill 1994). A sample of Carnivals around the world will show that at the festival, gender and sexuality are sites of contestation that may feature not only role reversals, but also outright defiance of the status quo and an energy and exuberance that pushes the boundaries of social order and control in the areas of sexual expression.

=Examining the Carnivalesque through Cultural Frameworks=

**Cultural Ecology and Carnival**
Cultural ecology looks at how the social, physical and other environments influence the development of different cultural traits (Steward, 1955). It includes “utilizing a cross-cultural analysis to identify general cultural principles that may be present within all cultures or viewing culture as a system of socially transmitted behavior and how the social system adapts or changes in accordance with the environment” (Sitron, 2014). To elucidate this definition consider this: things like religion, warfare, etiquette, clothing styles, diet, and customs can have very similar or common origins, meanings or appearances and these would be viewed as the general principles; but these are all shaped or modified by the environments in which they exist, as people will adapt what they need to suit their particular worldview or life experience.

In considering Carnivals around the world, one most note that there are certain festival customs, traits or characteristics which can be identified across many cultures, but nuances and peculiarities exist that distinguish one culture’s Carnival from another. As stated before, one such commonality is the fact that gender and sexuality are sites of contestation at each of these Carnivals, but the way in which this is done looks different in the cultures explored. For this analysis, the common traits or characteristics will be identified within a framework of “playful deviance.” (i.e. refer to “playful deviance”). In other words the criteria for playful deviance to take place, has been identified in all these cultures, but the ways in which these deviances are played out differ according to the environments in which there are being enacted.

**Playful Deviance**
Individuals who engage in the carnivalesque participate in activities and functions that are atypical to their everyday lives. Such happenings are seen as deviant and against the norm. This describes the concept of “playful deviance” in which travelers and tourists engage in recreational behaviors that they normally would not engage in at home (Milhausen, Reece, & Perera, 2006). This playful behavior provides a “timeout” which allows individuals to partake in events, behaviors, and settings where they can assume a different persona and be amongst likeminded people who are also engaging in the same behavior. Carnival provides a theme in which individuals can assume a set of instructions and norms associated with the event where they can participate without fear of personal, social, or lawful sanctions (pp. 98-99).

The first criteria for playful deviance states, “the setting and props for the behaviors must be appropriate (Milhausen, Reece, & Perera, 2006). The setting provides the scenery and props necessary for individuals to carry out deviant behavior (Redmon, 2003). These festivals contain certain attire, music, and themes that add to the festival, and are not generally present in everyday life. For example, these festivals often include costumes that are revealing, and are not costumes an individual would possibly wear outside of the festival. Additionally, many of the dances performed are considered sexual and sensual and are specific dances for the festival, such as Samba in Brazil and Wining in Trinidad and Tobago. The setting and props must be present in order for the individual to enact deviant behaviors.

The second criteria for playful deviance states, “individuals must choose the setting to enact the deviant behaviors and terminate the behaviors upon departure from the locale” (Milhausen, Reece, & Perera, 2006). In reference to the general definition of playful deviance, locales where festivals are celebrated create their own specific guidelines that participants can willingly engage in. Within these Carnival settings and guidelines are behaviors that participants can engage in without judgment. These behaviors are allowed as long as the event is occurring. Once the event has ended, participants are required or know to cease all behaviors that occurred during the event. In other words, it is assumed that the behavior, which was normalized during the event, is now considered deviant to which the participant would no longer engage in it for fear of stigma and possible sanctions (pp. 97-98).

The third criteria states, “the setting must offer protection from social sanction for the individuals engaging in the behavior (Milhausen, Reece, & Perera, 2006). Those who are present in the festival, locals and tourists, understand the culture of the festival, thus they understand what may happen. This allows for locals and tourists to enact deviant behaviors without fear of judgment from fellow festival attendees. However, protection from social sanction does not apply to those whom are not involved in the actual festival; it is only for those who are present. Protection from social sanction occurs because it is expected that once the festival is over, or an individual leaves the locale, they will no longer partake in deviant behaviors. Additionally, protection from social sanction differs from protection from legal sanction, such that there is protection from societal judgment during these festivals, but those who partake in illegal deviant behaviors may face legal sanction.

= **Gender and Sexual Expression in Other Cultures** =

New Orleans
In New Orleans, Mardi Gras is an annual festival event that occurs the day before Ash Wednesday, which is also considered the first day of Lent (Kinser, 1990). Considered one of the best known carnival festivals in the U.S., Mardi Gras attracts millions of visitors every year. In addition to celebrating the culture, history, and food of New Orleans, participants have an opportunity to engage in playful deviance when Mardi Gras officially begins (Milhausen, Reece, & Perera, 2006). Most of the festivities are localized to the Bourbon and Royal Streets within the French Quarter. These condensed areas are usually filled with paraders and observers, where street dancing and other behaviors typically deemed as “deviant” to the outside world are permissible within the confines of Mardi Gras culture.

LGBT Community
The traditions of Gay Mardi Gras in New Orleans came into being in the 1950s and the first Gay Mardi Gras Krewe was the Krewe of Yuga or "KY." (Krewes are groups or bands who organise parades). Throughout the 1970s and 1980s other gay krewes formed (like the Lords of Leather and Ishtar, the only all-woman krewe), and interestingly, at this time, only African Americans would rent space to gays, so the early balls were held at black labor union halls.

Sydney, Australia
Called Mardi Gras in Australia, this carnivalesque event grew from gay rights marches held annually since 1978, when numerous participants had been contentiously arrested by New South Wales State Police and the Parade maintains a political flavor, with many marching groups and floats promoting LGBTQI rights issues or themes (Kates, 2010). Sydney Mardi Gras is an annual LGBTQIA pride parade and unlike the pride marches of North America and Europe, and more in line with South American events, this takes place at night and reconfigures the traditional street parade with its flamboyant, subversive theatricality and performance within the tradition of carnival.

Trinidad & Tobago
Trinidad and Tobago's Carnival is considered in a postcolonial frame. Crichlow and Armstrong (2009) explains that carnival in a postcolonial frame precipitates questions including the racial condition in the New World, its slave post-slavery and indentured labour contexts, of its contestations and cultural politics in reaction to the increasing social and cultural influence of Europe, as well as hybrid praxes and identities. Trinidad and Tobago, like various other Caribbean islands, experienced a rotation of metropolitan empires (in Trinidad’s case, it was Spain, France and Britain), gained independence well into the twentieth century, and developed its carnival during the transition.

Brazil
Brazilian Carnavals are a place for people to reverse their social role in society; they are able to become somebodies during Carnaval, as opposed to nobodies. It is a rite of passage for Brazilians, and it inverts social norms (Ergood, 1991; Lewis & Pile, 1996). Participants are asked to relinquish their identity during the time and become someone else. People do this in a number of ways, including dance and costumes. One of the most well known style of dances in Brazilian Carnaval is samba.

Miami
Miami’s Carnival is different than other Carnivals in the United States, as it takes place one week before Columbus Day in October. Carnivals in Miami began as early as 1985 through Miami Carnival. Roughly 50 Caribbean Carnivals are scattered through North America and Europe, with Trinidadian influence of culture, music, and dance (Scher, 2005). Miami Broward One Carnival has many similar themes and elements to Trinidad and Tobago’s Carnival ; there are steel band competitions, parades of bands, and costume competitions, which result in a king and queen of Carnival.

Haiti
Haitian Carnival takes place over several weeks leading up to Mardi Gras, with the largest Carnival taking place in the capital, Port-au-Prince. Celebrations are not limited to Port-au-Prince; they take place in several other cities in Haiti, such as Jacmel and Aux Cayes. The Haitian Creole name for the festival is Haitian Defile Kanaval (defile is Creole for parade). Festivities begin in January and are known as Pre-Kanaval, and Kanaval officially begins in February ending on the Tuesday before Ash Wednesday, also known as Mardi Gras/Fat Tuesday.

Spain
Carnival in Spain typically occurs the Saturday prior to Ash Wednesday. Its most infamously celebrated festival, better known as Los Carnavales, occurs in the city on Cádiz (within the community of Andalusia). Evening Carnival events and parades are so plentiful that most business activities are close early (since most Carnival activities occur in the evening going into the early morning). While much of the celebration includes parades, floats, and street dancing, a day is set aside where floats are not present. In contrast to other carnivals around the world that feature provocative costumes and elaborate masks, Los Carnavales specializes in comedic attire, witty singing, acting, and face painting as an alternative to masking wearing. Mintz (1997) describes this time in Andalusia as “a unique celebration of freedom of expression, verbal wit, and acerbic and poetic commentary.”

Italy
In Italy the Carnival season occurs forty days before Easter, ending with a final celebration the day before Ash Wednesday. Upon the commencement of Ash Wednesday, natives and tourists embark on a ritual fast as set by the restrictions of Lent (Italia, 2014).Carnival was a means by which Italians could escape the everyday realities of life.

=References= Averill, G. (1994). Anraje to Angaje: Carnival Politics and Music in Haiti. //Ethnomusicology//. //38//(2), 217-247.

Crichlow, M.A. & Armstrong, P. (2010). Carnival praxis, carnivalesque strategies and Atlantic interstices. //Social Identities//, //16//(4), 399-414. doi:10.1080/13504630.2010.497693

Milhausen, R. R., Reece, M., & Perera, B. (2006). A theory-based approach to understandingsexual behavior at Mardi Gras. //Journal of sex research//, //43//(2), 97-106. doi:10.1080/00224490609552304

Redmon, D. (2003). playful deviance as an urban leisure activity: secret selves, self-validation, and entertaining performances. playful. //Deviant Behavior//, //24//(1), 27. doi:10.1080/01639620390117174

Sitron, J. (2014). Lecture on cross-cultural frameworks. Personal Collection of J. Sitron, Widener University, Chester, PA.

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