Non-Binary+&+Transgender+Identities+-+Native+American+Two-Spirits

=What it Means to be Two-Spirit= Two-Spirits are [|Native American]individuals who hold both historical and contemporary roles. The term encompasses a large toc collection of social meanings attributed to sexuality and gender roles across Native American tribes (Wilson, 1996). One of the most common definitions of a two-spirit refers to the embodiment of masculine and feminine spirits within one person (Balsam, Huang, Fieland, Simoni, & Walters, 2004). In some tribes, two-spirits were said to be born "in balance." This meant that these individuals had a balance of both masculine and feminine qualities (Wilson, 1996).

The term two-spirit emerged for individuals who do not conform to a binary definition of gender (male and female) (Mayo & Sheppard, 2012). Native Americans tend to hold a much more fluid concept than the Westernized view because sex and gender are not necessarily defined by genitals or biology, but rather in terms of function and behavior (Dollarhide, 2008). The term two-spirit has not always been used; it is relatively new. In the past, there were other terms used to describe individuals who performed roles not necessarily associated with their biological sex. Different tribes used their own language to describe these individuals. Even today, the term 'two-spirit' is not used among all Native American tribes (Garrett & Barret, 2003).

Berdache
The term berdache emerged from the first contact Europeans settling in North America, and continued to be used throughout many anthropological accounts of Native Americans. It was primarily imposed upon Native American males who appeared feminine or [|androgynous] (Mayo & Sheppard, 2012). The term is actually derogatory and insolent and its Arabic origin refers to male slaves who served as receptive prostitutes (Walters, Evans-Campbell, Simoni, Ronquillo, & Bhuyan, 2006).

Traditional Tribe Language
Many Native American tribes used their own traditional languages to describe individuals performing roles not associated with their biological sex. The language used to describe these individuals did not indicate a person's sexual activity, but it typically determined the characteristics defining a person's social role within the tribe (Mayo & Sheppard, 2012). The [|Navajo'] [|s] had both a third and fourth gender, nadle and nadleehi. Nadle means "in the process of becoming," which referred to individuals born [|intersex]. Nadleehi means "being transformed," and referred to individuals who were not born intersex, but performed roles that may not have been associated with their biological sex (Dollarhide, 2008). The [|Dakota] used the term winkte, and the [|Crow] used the term bade. The original [|Northern Algonquian]term, niizh manitoag, meant "all humans bear imprints of both (the feminine and masculine), although some individuals may manifest both qualities more completely than others" (Mayo & Sheppard, 2012). The term 'two-spirit' did not emerge until 1990.

Two-Spirit Name Origin
The term 'two-spirit' was adopted at the third annual gathering of LGBT Natives (Walters et al., 2006). It emerged from an increasingly positive attitude about being Native American and rediscovering the acceptance and even privilege two-spirits had in their tribes prior to [|colonization]. People who use the term today are said to be "actively living, preserving, and honoring Native American culture (Mayo & Sheppard, 2012). The term can be confusing because it encompasses many different Native American gender and sexual identities. These include: Native American gays, lesbians, gender categories, traditions of gender diversity,[| transvestites],[| transsexuals], [|transgenders], and [|drag queens] (Iovannone, 2009). However, the true meaning of the term does not necessarily involve sexual orientation. It offers a connection to the past that was severed by colonization and governmental policies (Wilson, 1996).

=Cultural Roles= Two-spirits were more apart of and integrated into tribal culture prior to colonization. Traditionally, they were apart of the entire community and highly respected (Wilson, 1996). Their role in historical tribes was more of a spiritual and social identity rather than a psychosexual one (Garrett & Barret, 2003). Colonization changed how two-spirits were viewed in society and among their tribes. However, there are still contemporary cultural roles for these individuals, some of which carried through from colonization to contemporary times.

Historical Roles
Across Native American tribes, two-spirit individuals held a variety of roles and responsibilities within their communities. A primary role of two-spirits was that of 'bridge-maker' between males and females and the spiritual and the material (Wilson, 1996). They were seen as being able to view topics from both a male and female perspective, so they were thought to be able to see past the boundaries of a typical human existence (Garrett & Barret, 2003). Many tribes saw them as having the capability of walking among both the physical and spiritual world. In doing so, they could learn and teach about harmony and balance (Garrett & Barret, 2003). Two-spirits were integral members of society. They were often central to tribal life, rather than marginal (Nanda, 2000).

Two-spirits held many other roles in society besides that of bride-maker. Their roles and responsibilities varied among tribes, but they were often more wealthier members of tribes. A reason for this is within some societies, they were able to engage in both men's and women's work (Nanda, 2000). Two-spirits also had places as medicine persons, ceremonial leaders, interpreters of dreams, priests, therapists, care-givers, weavers, cooks, and story-tellers (Garrett & Barret, 2003; Mayo & Sheppard, 2012; Balsam et al., 2004).

There were different roles among male and female [|gender variants]. Many male gender variant two-spirits were known to be especially skilled in crafts work and weaving. In some tribes, male gender variants were warriors, and in others, they rejected this role or were not allowed to be warriors. Some tribes prohibited male gender variants from showing 'maleness,' so they were unable to participate in battle. They would often have other roles in warfare, such as treating the wounded or leading post-battle ceremonials (Nanda, 2000). There is not as much information on female gender variant two-spirits, but Nanda (2000) offers some insight into their tribal roles. Often, these individuals were typically strong warriors and hunters who opted out of motherhood. Although colonization drastically influenced the acceptance of two-spirit individuals, they still have roles among certain tribes today.

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Contemporary Roles
One two-spirit role that has carried over prior to colonization is that of care-giver. This is still a primary role and often expected responsibility of a two-spirit who still lives among their tribe. They often take care of sick family, friends, and elders. It is also common for two-spirit individuals to raise children of people in the tribe who cannot (Campbell, 2007). A more contemporary role for female gender variant two-spirits takes place in the political arena. These duties include political organizing and rallying for indigenous sovereignty (Walters et al., 2006). While two-spirits still have tribal roles in today's society, colonization successfully diminished the central role these individuals once played in tribal life.

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=Sexuality= Prior to colonization two-spirit Native Americans engaged in sexual relations and even married members of the same biological sex (Nanda, 2000). However, this did not occur in all tribes. In some tribes, male gender variant two-spirits lived with and had sexual relations with both men and women. In other tribes, they were said to only have sexual relations with men, and in some tribes, they had no sexual relationships at all. A male gender variant two-spirit having a sexual relationship with a male of the tribe was not seen as homosexual because the tribes recognized these individuals being of two different genders. However, in many tribes, two males engaging in a sexual relationship was often prohibited (Nanda, 2000). Female gender variants also had a wide range of sexual relationships. In certain tribes, they married women, whereas in others, they lived alone. Sexual relationships and marriage were varied by tribe, but most tribes did not persecute a two-spirit for having sexual relations with someone of the same biological sex.

Keenan (2006) stated that the term two-spirit does not denote 'genital activity'. Nanda (2000) states that while many two-spirit Native Americans did engage in sexual relations with people of the same biological sex, it was not central to their alternate gender role. However, the European colonizers saw this aspect differently. They viewed two-spirits as [|sodomites], and this impacted their legitimacy among tribal communities.

=History= Prior to colonization, two-spirit individuals were typically regarded with respect and held high places within their tribes (Dollarhide, 2008). Colonization succeeded in undermining the traditional and ceremonial roles held by two-spirits in many tribal communities. Where two-spirits were once accepted and included, after colonization they were shamed and condemned (Walters et al., 2006). Even today, many two-spirits face persecution and discrimination within their own tribes (Mayo & Sheppard, 2012).

Colonization
The Spanish were the first to arrive in the Americas and have contact with Native Americans as well as two-spirit individuals. The [|plague] had recently swept over Europe, causing a need for reproduction and a damnation of homosexual acts. The Spanish viewed sodomy as a crime worse than murder (Williams, 1986). When Spanish explorers encountered two-spirits they were enraged by the sight of Native American men who dressed like women, performed women's work, and engaged in sexual relationships with men (Nanda, 2000). The Spanish and other Europeans overlooked the highly respected social status of two-spirit individuals, and chose to only see them as perverse sodomites (Mayo & Sheppard, 2012).

What the Europeans deemed as homosexual behavior became a justification for the conquest against Native Americans. Two-spirits were slaughtered (Mayo & Sheppard, 2012). Many were burned at the stake. [|Vasco Nunez de Balboa] ordered the two-spirit men he saw dressed as women to be eaten by dogs. Europeans created rules and laws surrounding their own ideas of sexual behavior, and they prohibited what they viewed to be abominable, homosexual acts (Williams, 1986).

Impacts of Colonization
The Spanish claimed to wipe out the two-spirits and sodomy within Native American communities. However, there is not much documentation about how Native American tribes responded to this sexual [|acculturation]. In tribes such as the [|Huichol]and [|Cora], two-spirit individuals kept their respected status and still played a part in rituals. In [|mestizo] cultures, same-sex behavior became deviant and many two-spirits were condemned (Williams, 1986). Among the [|Ojibwe], two-spirits were kept hidden from white people (Mayo & Sheppard, 2012). Though there is little documentation, it is clear that colonization forever changed how these individuals functioned in Native American societies, and that can still be seen today.

Today, most two-spirits experience homophobic oppression both in United States' society as well as within their own tribes (Balsam et al., 2004). In many Native tribes where the two-spirit status declined, younger two-spirits choose to leave the reservation to seek out other experiences and partners (Garrett & Barret, 2003). Many two-spirits are still trying to fight for their legitimacy and acceptance in a society that still focuses on the gender binary and tends to oppress sexual and gender minorities.

=References= Balsam, K.F., Huang, B., Fieland, K.C., Simoni, J.M., & Walters, K.L. (2004). [|Culture, trauma, and wellness: A comparison of heterosexual and lesbian, gay, bisexual, and two-spirit Native Americans]. //Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 10//(3), 287-301. doi: 10.1037/1099-9809.10.3.287

Dollarhide, K. (2008).[| Native American spirituality: Understanding gender as sacred]. //Transgender Tapestry,// (115), 33-36. Retrieved from http://web.a.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=3307da10-5503-44bc-bb1e-e352bc42c836%40sessionmgr4002&vid=2&hid=4212

Garrett, M.T., & Barret, B. (2003). [|Two spirit: Counseling Native American gay, lesbian, and bisexual people]. //Journal of M////ulticultural Counseling & Development, 31//(2), 131-142. Retrieved from http://web.a.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=27f512ed-9fed-4cf7-91f6-fa84e352a20e%40sessionmgr4003&vid=2&hid=4212

Iovanne, J.J. (2009). [|"Mix-ups, messes, confinements, and double-dealings." Transgendered performances in three novels by Louise Erdich]. //Studies in American Indian Literatures, 21//(1), 38-68. Retrieved from http://0-search.proquest.com.libcat.widener.edu/docview/210681211?accountid=29103

Mayo Jr., J.B., & Sheppard, M. (2012).[| New social learning from two spirit Native Americans]. //Journal of Social Studies Research, 36//(3), 263-282. Retrieved from http://web.a.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=fff63428-1444-4160-b472-7730017a63d3%40sessionmgr4002&vid=2&hid=4212

Nanda, S., (2000). //[|Gender diversity: Crosscultural variations].// Long Grove, IL: Waveland Press, Inc.

Walters, K.L., Evans-Campbell, T., Simoni, J.M., Ronquillo, T., & Bhuyan, R. (2006). [|"My spirit in my heart": Identity experiences and challenges among American Indian two-spirit women]. //Journal of Lesbian Studies, 10//(1), 125-149. doi: 10.1300/J155v10n01_07

Williams, W.L. (1986). //[|The spirit and the flesh: sexual diversity in American Indian culture].// Boston, MA: Beacon Press.

Wilson, A. (1996). [|How we find ourselves: Identity development and two-spirit people]. //Harvard Educational Review, 66//(2), 303-317. Retrieved from http://0-search.proquest.com.libcat.widener.edu/docview/212251138?accountid=29103