Breastfeeding

by Ashley Haymond, Malia Piazza, Cristina Valcarcel-Mikijanic, Ashley Gadarowski, Alicia L. Andrews, Jillien Kahn, Mike Becketts, other group 3

=**Breastfeeding**=

According to the World Health Organization (2003), breastfeeding is the recommended way to feed infants with benefits for both the infant and the mother. The recommendation is for exclusive breastfeeding for the first six months and complimentary foods in addition to breastfeeding up to age two (World Health Organization, 2003).

Breastfeeding involves the release of oxytocin and prolactin, promoting nurture and bonding (Stuart-Macadam, Dettwyler, 1995). The process usually consists of 20-45 minutes of feeding every 1-3 hours for first few weeks (“Breastfeeding Frequency,” 2012). It reduces child morbidity and provides greater physiological and cognitive effects than formula-feeding (Guo et al., 2013)

According to Koltko-Rivera (2004), worldview consists of existential, proscriptive and prescriptive beliefs. Cultural values undeniable influence perceptions about breastfeeding. Influences include the sexualization of the female body, ideas about women’s role vis-a-vis motherhood, and the importance of individualism.

A brief description of its role in cultures from around the world appears below.

China
In China, breastfeeding is considered to be a traditional practice (Lui et al., 2013), but according to research, the rates of breastfeeding among Chinese mothers are much lower than in other nations (Guo et al., 2013). The infant formula market (Lui et al., 2013), the one-child act (Lui et al., 2013), the Chinese standards of femininity (Pei, Sik-Ying, & Ng, 2007 as cited in Weijun et al., 2011), and other factors are having a negative affect on the prevalence of breastfeeding across various regions China, but the national baby-friendly initiative may begin to shift norms toward breastfeeding (UNICEF, 2009 as cited in Liu et al., 2013).

France
In France, the proscriptive beliefs of collectivism and individualism clash. The government supports a form of collectivism: breastfeeding is good for babies and mothers. It encourages breastfeeding for 4 to 6 months and provides education and support (Bonet, 2013). However, individualism runs strong. French women have worked outside the home since at least the 18th century (Lastinger, 1996; Sussman, 1975). The concept of //vie de femme// permeates cultural life (Gibbons, 2011), and many women expect motherhood to be part, but not all, of their lives (Badinter, 2012). Given the low rate of breastfeeding in France, individualism prevails over collectivist public health arguments.

Hispanic and Latino American Women
Hispanic and Latino American women have the highest rates for breastfeeding in the United States, exceeding the U.S. average by almost 7% (Gorman, Madlensky, Jackson, Ganiats & Boies, 2007; Harley, Stamm & Eskenazi, 2007; Hill, Arnett & Mauk, 2008). The more unacculturated a woman is, the more likely she is to breastfeed ( Gorman, Madlensky, Jackson, Ganiats, & Boies, 2007). Women who have acculturated themselves mirror the U.S. rate for breast feeding ( Gorman, Madlensky, Jackson, Ganiats, & Boies, 2007). Additionally, Hispanic and Latino American Men are the most supportive of their partners when compared to other men ( Vaaler, Castrucci, Parks, Clark, Stagg, Erickson, 2011). The support of men for their partners and the support women get from their families and friends encourages and increases the intention to breastfeed.

Thailand
There are no laws in [|Thailand] that prohibit women from breastfeeding in public. It is important to know that modesty is expected while breastfeeding or otherwise expressing breast milk. In Thailand extensive measures have been taken to educate people of all social strata to understand the importance of breastfeeding for babies. Culturally, breastfeeding has grown in importance and it is commonplace around the country that many public establishments. Furthermore many companies offer nursing corners/rooms for employees who are nursing

Breastfeeding in the United States of America- Subculture-Intensive Mothering
Intensive mothering is described as a gendered model that strongly advises mothers to extend a tremendous amount of time, energy, and money raising their children (Avishai, 2007; Lee, 2011). Breastfeeding, once associated with poor, immigrant, and unsophisticated women, has now become a marker of privileged motherhood because success highly depends on the mother’s access to adequate nourishment, rest, and a relaxing environment (Avishai, 2007). Successful breastfeeding is measured in terms of initiation rates, duration, amount of lactation, and exclusivity (Avishai, 2007; Lee, 2011). Successful motherhood is then dependent upon successful breastfeeding.

@Black American Women and Breastfeeding
Breastfeeding among Black American women has evolved within the culture from the time African ancestors were enslaved in America until the production of formula, and it the widely distribution of formula which was provided through WIC programs throughout low-income communities across America. Breastfeeding being the known way of providing nourishment for infants, while enhancing bonding between the mother and child. However, with the negative imprint of slavery and the body objectification of African and Black American women has shaped the perception of breastfeeding within the Black American community. Black women are reported to have high intentions on breastfeeding, but do not carry out the behavior, mainly due to lack of support from their family, and/or friends, as well as medical providers (Asiodu, 2011)

=Islamic Middle East= Breastfeeding in the Islamic Middle East is heavily supported by the Qur'an for up to two years (Al-Baqaray: 233). Each country differs greatly, ranging form Turkey, with a 98% breastfeeding rate and freedom to feed in public when covered by the appropriate dress (McLachlin & Forster, 2006; Cardamamma, 2011), to Afghanistan, with extreme rates of poverty, lack of education, and high infant mortality due to mixing formula with water (UNICEF, 2014; UNAMA, 2014). Abu-Dhabi is the only country requiring breastfeeding by law for two full years (Salem, 2014). Wet nursing is also a widely accepted practice, and is a focus of Islamic folklore (Moran & Gilad, 2007).

Recommendations
Interventions around the topic of breastfeeding require an appreciation of the deep feelings it stirs up. Breastfeeding taps into a culture's idea of proper motherhood, a woman's willingness to provide nourishment for her child. A cross-cultural perspective is essential because the definition of a good mother differs.

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